About 15% of lubricants used in vehicles in some European countries are from vegetable oil derivatives [93]. Cheap and readily available raw materials such as used cooking oil and yellow grease are used for producing biodiesel. Licensee IntechOpen. The biodiesel production process is shifting from other sources to algal oil and heterogeneous acid catalysts. It is a simple process where alkoxy group of an ester compound (oil or fat) is exchanged with an alcohol. 0000055757 00000 n Major achievements of biodiesel [16, 0000060096 00000 n Data on biodiesel production and feedstock use from the EIA's Monthly Biodiesel Production Report were examined to determine whether biodiesel production efficiency has improved in recent . 0000300079 00000 n Biodiesel production provided an appropriate starting point for these efforts. This results in higher specific fuel consumption values of the biodiesel. How? 0000002746 00000 n Pinch analysis [ 37] is the well-established method for heat integration in the process and optimal design of heat exchanger networks. These strains have shown high lipid content and biomass productivity. The ranges of free fatty acids commonly found in biodiesel feedstock are: refined vegetable oils, less than 0.05 percent; crude vegetable oil, 0.3-0.7 per- Edible vegetable oil is the first and main feedstock for the production of biodiesel. 0000068911 00000 n Refined vegetable oils, particularly soybean oil and canola oil, have been the most common biodiesel feedstock types in the United States. 0000171079 00000 n Soybean, rapeseed, and palm oil are the main raw materials for biodiesel production worldwide. Subjecting solvents containing hydroxyl groups (such as water and alcohol) to conditions in excess of their critical points make them to act as superacids. In previous versions of the representative biodiesel plant model, a conversion factor of 7.55 pounds of soybean oil per gallon of biodiesel was assumed. Feedstock Sources Various sources of feeds tocks are described here. These are still under investigation [79]. Therefore, control or replacement of the alcohol content is required. 0000006478 00000 n Within five years of its invention, Diesels engine ran on its own power with 75% efficiency against its initial 26% efficiency [11]. 2012 The Author(s). They grow in saltwater of coastal areas unsuitable for energy crops. 0000004970 00000 n However, the biofuel industry was faced with a major challenge of cheap and readily available feedstock. 0000009007 00000 n this property should be monitored in biodiesel production. 0000239311 00000 n 149 0 obj <>stream Low-cost feedstocks such as algal oils, used cooking oils and animal fats are utilized to increase biodiesel profitability. ,0 aR6#L0Kp7oy1n+&TrYLQ\6{PyHiLwN!E,Hc.s 17P /D#+@ Biodiesel Production Properties And Feedstocks Biodiesel Production Properties And Feedstocks Cellulose Chemistry and Technology. 0000299139 00000 n Sustained high yields were obtained throughout its average life cycle of 3050 years. The book "Biodiesel: Feedstocks and Processing Technologies" is intended to provide a professional look on the recent achievements and emerging trends in biodiesel production. Hence, this book chapter provides an information on the suitability of different potential feedstocks in the Philippines that can be utilized for biodiesel production. different feedstocks by generating biodiesel from each feedstock through one producer, to minimize the variation in production techniques, and by subjecting the samples to a series of . It can produce equal biodiesel yields obtained from soybeans and other oilseeds. Our team is growing all the time, so were always on the lookout for smart people who want to help us reshape the world of scientific publishing. Direct acid catalyzed trans-esterification of the oil, 3. 1929 0 obj <> endobj This is because the driving factors for its advances are more of economics and politics than technological [5]. Process scale-up for commercial production is the major one amongst them. Their low costs and availability make them suitable for reducing the production costs of biodiesel. In the same regards, some technologies are designed to handle variety of feedstocks. 0000238666 00000 n Another process that has the potential of processing these feedstocks is supercritical transesterification. Additionally, chemical grade ethanol is usually denatured with poisonous substances to prevent it from being abused. 0000243311 00000 n Feedstock and Biodiesel Characteristics Report By Shannon D. Sanford*, James Matthew White, Parag S. Shah, Claudia Wee, Marlen A. Valverde, and Glen R. Meier Publication Date: November 17th, 2009 Renewable Energy Group 416 S. Bell Avenue P.O. Those challenges requiring immediate attention are product stability under long storage, lower energy content, cold flow properties, catalyst leaching, microalgal oil extraction and NOx emissions. Essentially, biodiesel is non-aromatic and sulphur-free as compared with petrodiesel which contains 20 to 40 wt.% aromatic compounds and 500 ppm SO2 [7]. 0000010609 00000 n Subsidies such as tax exempt and excise duty reductions are essential to make biodiesel price-competitive. These and other problems such as variable viscosity make it unstable and unsuitable for direct use [82]. 0000241376 00000 n 0 Therefore, it is difficult to obtain pure chemical grade ethanol. Transesterification is a reversible reaction. Methanol is toxic, highly flammable and contributes to global warming. Biodiesel as a concept was thus established [9]. Approximately 100 pounds of oil or fat are reacted with 10 pounds of a short-chain alcohol (usually methanol) in . Published 2020 Biodiesel can be produced from various vegetable oils and animal fat. 0000299065 00000 n 0000284462 00000 n 0000008304 00000 n The historical developments of the biofuel industry in general and biodiesel in particular, is unlike many industries. 50 100 Steam is injected to remove any solvent remaining from the oil. f78 Biodiesel - Feedstocks, Production and Applications of the steam engine where only about 10 to 12% efficiency is derived from new power generation plant. irradiation could produce a biodiesel yield in the range of 89.5-92.7% 2. Affordable and readily available non-food feedstocks such as microalgae have been produced in commercial scale without competing with arable land or causing deforestation. Unfortunately for the biofuel industry, at this same period, the petroleum industries found out more advanced technologies for improving the properties of the black gold. It includes 22 chapters, organized in two sections. Besides their high lipid contents and fast growth rate, microalgae have the potential to mitigate the competitions for land-use and food-for-fuel conflicts. However, small amount of hexane (2.5 wt%) added increased the biodiesel yield from 67.7% to 85.5% under supercritical conditions [72]. Read Paper. 0000171597 00000 n However, presence of higher amounts of water and FFAs in these feedstocks poses the problems of saponification and extra pretreatment and purification costs with alkali catalysts. 0000298883 00000 n To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. During World War II, oil from Jatropha seeds was used as blends with and substituted for diesel [33,34]. This is because consumers always tend to buy cheap rather than green fuels. Its based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. In order to reduce production costs and to avoid the food-for-fuel conflict, inedible oils are used as the major sources for biodiesel production. This period witnessed increased demands for automobiles which were propelled by petroleum fuels. The lack of depth in the understanding of feedstock's impact on the business plan has lead to challenges that might have been avoided for smaller scale producers. Concerns over diminishing oil reserves, increasing crude oil prices and associated environmental impacts aided the reemergence of biodiesel; making it the fastest growing industry worldwide. Biodiesel production, properties, and feedstocks Bryan R. Moser Received: 18 December 2008 /Accepted: 24 February 2009 /Published online: 25 March 2009 / Editor: Prakash Lakshmanan; David Songstad . 313 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<6029178497831A9FC79263097B2EB91D><7B29563D6AEEAC468665F5987B723899>]/Index[299 38]/Info 298 0 R/Length 88/Prev 458489/Root 300 0 R/Size 337/Type/XRef/W[1 3 1]>>stream However, only palm, jatropha, rapeseed, soybean, sunflower, cottonseed, safflower, and peanut oils are considered as viable feedstocks for commercial production [ 28 ]. Books > See Table 5 for advantages and disadvantages, Reaction is 4000 times faster than homogeneous acid catalysed reactions, High possibility of reusing and regenerating catalyst many times, Speeds up rate of reaction (from hours to minutes), Simultaneous transesterification of TGs and esterification of FA, Operates at mild temperature (50 to 80 C), Improves catalyst activity and selectivity, Cleaner biodiesel and glycerol are produced, Higher yield in shorter time compared to batch-type, Catalysts are cheap and readily available, Mild reaction conditions & less prone to leaching, Minimizes solvation of active sites by action of water, Very slow reaction rate & mineral acids used are corrosive to the equipment, Highly sensitive to water and FFAs in the oil. Pyrolysis is the heating of organic matter in the absence of air to produce gas, a liquid and a solid [52]. Animal fats used as feedstocks for biodiesel production includes tallow, chicken fat, lard, with high quantity saturated fatty acids yields, and however, poor cloud/pour points among chemical physical properties, but having high oxidation stability and high cetane number among its chemical physical properties and importantly as well, lower price. Palm oil and coconut oil are commonly used in Malaysia and Indonesia. However, the process requires larger and special leak proof reacting vessels and complete removal of the cosolvent from the product. 0000004694 00000 n Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too. Numerous feedstocks have been experimented in biodiesel production. In order to stabilize the composition of the bio-oil and reduce water and oxygen content, processes such as steam reforming, hydro-treatment, hydro-cracking and emulsification with mineral diesel for direct use are employed [84-87]. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Under supercritical conditions, alcohol serves a dual purpose of acid catalyst and a reactant [46,71]. However, some properties of biodiesel also contributed to the unprecedented growth we are witnessing in the biodiesel industry [16-18]. 0000062204 00000 n Moreover, it also has a higher specific gravity of 0.88 when compared to 0.85 of petroleum diesel. However, this method is not economical because it requires high reaction temperature, pressure and higher molar ratio of alcohol to feedstock [42,43,46]. Production. Consequently, it is difficult to characterize fuel obtained from pyrolysis [52]. endstream endobj 300 0 obj <> endobj 301 0 obj <> endobj 302 0 obj <>stream hb```a``* R@ (XXVjU$"g">IBID ?~RHI_UX-[YX 23-27]. 0000002845 00000 n The microwave irradiation as energy stimulant has been attracting the attention of many researchers. @| }5#.iFg`8 @ Biodiesel produced from used cooking oil will continue to play an important role in the European Union, Canada, the United States, and Singapore. 0000070850 00000 n However, it has the disadvantage of long processing time and high cost of purchasing enzymes [51]. The various feedstocks and processing conditions provide several processing technologies. 0000243600 00000 n KOH was used as a catalyst. Biodiesel plant locations Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) from cold pressed soapnut seed oil was envisaged as biodiesel source for the first time. 0000170080 00000 n Biodiesel is one of the most thoroughly tested alternative fuel in the market today. Transesterification is the most widely employed process for commercial production of biodiesel. Feedstock characterization, process conversion and fuel finishing are the building blocks of biodiesel production. endstream endobj startxref 336 0 obj <>stream Average decrease of 22.5% for smoke density, 17.1% for CO and 14% for CO2 have been reported when biodiesel was used [22]. They have helped to spur the production of corn as a feedstock, reduce greenhouse emissions, and increase national security (Tyner & Taheripour, 2007). Estimated oil content, yields and land requirement for various biodiesel feedstocks.[36,47,48]. Soybeans are grown primarily in the Midwest, where most biodiesel production capacity is located. i{9A;kq8A`4e=*,=6I %8\!Xt1G# M 0000300439 00000 n 0000298524 00000 n 1949 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<51C80ED11A00C54FAFBF3A85CC1F5919>]/Index[1929 44]/Info 1928 0 R/Length 98/Prev 605129/Root 1930 0 R/Size 1973/Type/XRef/W[1 2 1]>>stream This conversion reduces the high viscosity of the oils and fats. %PDF-1.4 % The oil extraction methods currently in use for algal oil are expensive. Some of the major challenges faced by the biodiesel industry include readily available and affordable feedstocks, competition from a popular and cheaper energy source, technological advancements and acceptability. Request PDF | Aquatic Weeds as Bioenergy Feedstock | The decline in fossil fuels instigates the search for more economical and sustainable bioenergy feedstocks. 0000013303 00000 n 0000014714 00000 n endstream endobj 614 0 obj <> endobj 615 0 obj <> endobj 616 0 obj <>stream Multiple processes exist for triglyceride feedstock purification. The demand for biofuels began to increase in America from the 1890's to 1920's. The pretreatment step, soap and catalyst removal common to alkaline catalysis are eliminated since the process requires no catalyst [42,43]. It uses a continuously changing electrical and magnetic fields to activate the smallest degree of variance of the reacting molecules. This contributes to deposit formation on fuel injectors and engine damage. The fact that it can be cultivated almost anywhere with minimal irrigation and less intensive care, made it suitable for peasant farmers. Efficient mixing from pumps or motionless mixers is required to ensure homogeneity and to reduce mass transfer limitations. The procedure for the production, quality and engine-testing for biodiesel was finalized and published internationally in 1983. Historical Biodiesel Production and Feedstock Use Table 1 provides U.S. biodiesel supply and disappearance for the most recent five years. Algae, babassu tree, copaiba, honge, jatropha or ratanjyote, jojoba, karanja or honge, mahua, milk bush, nagchampa, neem, petroleum nut, rubber seed tree, silk cotton tree, and tall. >?a'1F=wB/A@'(xlQ#p|_p@wC"/ j}0neme0meaSx^)Th'+zqebv"1RxM2(1n1. This will provide a global outlook in making biodiesel an economical and eco-friendly alternative to petroleum diesel. Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. The levels of free fatty acids in feedstock play a critical part in the biodiesel reaction and if too high or improperly handled could lead to waste of part or all of a batch. Soybean oil is a major feedstock for biodiesel production. Among the 75 plant species which have more than 29% oil in their seed/kernel; palm, Jatropha curcas, and Pongamia pinnata (Karanja) were found to be the most suitable for biodiesel production [32]. Currently, biodiesel production costs are higher than those of petroleum diesel. 0000238955 00000 n Another oil crop that is used to improve soil quality is the nitrogen-fixing Pongamia pinnata. Departments of Agriculture and Energy with biodiesel usage. The process can be small in physical size and it utilizes heterogeneous catalysts to produce biodiesel within 4 s [20,21]. Soybean oil accounted for about half of biodiesel feedstocks inputs between 2014 and 2017. 50 0 obj <> endobj However, biodiesel degrades after long period of storage. 0000060169 00000 n This process utilizes sound energy at a frequency beyond human hearing. A patent for an efficient thermal engine which was to be operated on peanut oil was filed in 1892 by Rudolph Diesel in Germany. 0000031524 00000 n 0000002296 00000 n This is because the reaction process fast (within minutes), it employs a lower alcohol-oil ratio and it reduces by-products quantities. Thereafter, the sales of biodiesel were weakened and the production structure was pushed to the background. This is because biodiesel acts as a solvent which dissolves sediments in diesel fuel tanks [95]. However, only palm, jatropha, rapeseed, soybean, sunflower, cottonseed, safflower, and peanut oils are considered as viable feedstocks for commercial production [28]. In the middle of 1990s, the cost of feedstock accounted for 60-75% of the total cost of biodiesel fuel , but today about more than 85% of the costs of production are fied up in feedstock costs [31, 83]. We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the worlds most-cited researchers. This Paper. Nannochloropsis, members of the marine green algae are considered the most suitable candidates for biodiesel production. 0000170271 00000 n In order to achieve the biodiesel central policy of protecting the environment, replacing petroleum diesel and protecting and/or creating jobs, a good understanding of biodiesel history is essential. The absence of interphase solves the mass transfer limitations which gives the possibility of completing the reaction in minutes rather than several hours. In 1912, Diesel published two articles [12,13] in which he reflected: The fact that fat oils from vegetable sources can be used may seem insignificant to-day, but such oils may perhaps become in course of time of the same importance as some natural mineral oils and the tar products are now. Sunflower oil was transesterified and refined to a standard similar to petroleum diesel fuel [15]. Techniques that utilize motionless mixing requires higher temperature and pressure to achieve shorter residence time. 1972 0 obj <>stream startxref Biodiesel - Feedstocks, Production and Applications, Submitted: May 7th, 2012 Published: December 3rd, 2012, Total Chapter Downloads on intechopen.com, *Address all correspondence to: ashri@um.edu.my. 0000237210 00000 n However, the use of hydro-energy consumes large resources coupled with the inefficiencies of the steam engine where only about 10 to 12% efficiency is derived from new power generation plant. Speculations swirl around the agreements signed at the 21st Conference of the Parties to reduce carbon emissions from the transportation sector and stimulate the biofuel blending. The curbs in the first- and . This marked the reemergence of the potentials of biofuels in the public consciousness. 0000170648 00000 n It eliminates post production costs such as the washing and neutralization steps. Oil was extracted from the passion fruit seeds, and transesterified to produce biodiesel. Algae oil Algae are single-celled organisms that, like plants, produce energy through the process of photosynthesis, Algae oil can be used to produce biodiesel. 0000068469 00000 n "Fast forward to now, the U.S. market is 2.6 billion gallons and soy oil prices are the same or less, in real terms." At press time soybean oil prices hovered around 29 cents a pound. In fact, the Mcgyan Process was used to produce biodiesel under 4 s [19,20]. 0000284097 00000 n The residence time for this process is within 4 s to 10 min because of efficient mixing [71,72]. In order to produce a 100% renewable biodiesel (fatty acid ethyl ester; FAEE), bioethanol is currently experimented as a substitute for methanol [88]. xref 0 It produces clean liquids which needs no additional washing, drying or filtering. }[~l6o&^CcYbV{s`7B)bs$bEW s& Conversion of the oil to its fatty acids and then to biodiesel. 0000068838 00000 n Non-fossil fuel alternatives are favored because of their common availability, renewability, sustainability, biodegrablability, job creation, regional development and reduced environmental impacts. This is because they are readily available at affordable prices and enable fast reaction rates [24]. Different feedstocks used in the production of biodiesel More than 350 oil-bearing crops have been identified as potential sources for producing biodiesel. An even more daunting challenge is in increasing the irradiation penetration depth beyond a few centimeters into the reacting molecules. 0000006589 00000 n Product of pyrolysis consists of heterogeneous molecules such as water, particulate matter, sulfur, alkanes, alkenes and carboxylic acids [39,56]. Microalgae can be cultivated in habitats which are not favorable for energy crops. In 1937, G. Chavanne, Belgian scientist patented the Procedure for the transformation of vegetable oils for their uses as fuels. Solid acid catalysts are currently receiving great attention because they are suitable for feedstocks containing FFAs [39-41]. hWNJ~T57 of feedstock cost, of US$0.158/l ($0.60/gal) for biodiesel production, and estimating a feedstock cost of US$0.539/l ($2.04/gal) for rened soy oil, an overall cost of US$0.70/l ($2.64/gal) for the production of soy-based biodiesel was estimated (American Biofuels Association, 1994). The process is insensitive to water and FFAs [43,45]. We have compiled the following table from a number of different sources, to help with quick . More than 350 oil-bearing crops have been identified as potential sources for producing biodiesel. The viscosity, flash and pour points and equivalent calorific values of the oil are lower than diesel fuel. The availability of public funds, and new transportation infrastructure such as interstate and highway systems helped in this regard [14]. They are obtained from Jatropha curcas (jatropha or ratanjyote or seemaikattamankku), Pongamia pinnata (karanja or honge), Calophyllum 0000069057 00000 n carried out a study. A process that combines co-solvents in superctical conditions is promising in increasing product yield, reducing process time and overall production costs. Compared to edible oils, inedible oils are affordable and readily available. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. Coffee oil as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. Despite these challenges however, the historical development of biodiesel is intriguing. On a positive note, sales of purified glycerol (glycerine) saved 6.5% of the operational cost [97-99] while 25% saving was reported in ref [96] from the utilization of waste soapstock with respect to virgin soybean oil. inophyllum (nagchampa), Hevca brasiliensis (rubber seed tree), Azadirachta indica (neem), Madhuca indica and Madhuca longifolia (mahua), Ceiba By 1893, Diesel's invention was demonstrated in an exhibition in Paris. The presence of this layer further makes separation difficult and expensive. 0000004104 00000 n By 2000, the Commodity Credit Corporation started subsidizing value-added agriculture towards biodiesel production. The dominant factor in the production process is the cost of feedstock while capital costs contribute only about 7%. trailer 0000300505 00000 n Gaskos established the first pilot plant for biodiesel production in 1987. [31]. Most of the strict requirements set by the American and European biodiesel standards for biodiesel have been achieved [36]. 0000011345 00000 n The chemical reaction of transesterification produces two products - glycerol and an ester called biodiesel. Gaskos established the first pilot plant for biodiesel production in 1987. Recently, dielectric oils and synthetic lubricants used for electric transformers have joined the market competition for these raw materials. Pretreatments to less than 0.05% FFA is required for homogeneous alkali catalysts [80,81].