(1988) interviewed 84 men who had had a heart attack and found that although the men reported some negative consequences for their lifestyle and quality of life, 33 per cent of them considered their life to be somewhat or considerably improved. It is possible that the obese take less exercise due to factors such as embarrassment and stigma and that exercise plays a part in the maintenance of obesity but not in its cause. Health psychology attempts to challenge the biomedical model of health and illness. stopping smoking will save me money) cues to action, which may be internal (e.g. Further, compliance also has financial implications as money is wasted when drugs are prescribed, prescriptions are cashed, but the drugs not taken. There was an error retrieving your Wish Lists. communication research The role of knowledge in health professionalpatient communication The problem of doctor variability To conclude Questions For discussion Assumptions in health psychology Further reading 5 Smoking and alcohol use Chapter overview Who smokes? Discuss. However, there are some problems with this approach as follows: Most research carried out within a cognitive perspective uses quantitative methods and devises questionnaires based upon existing models. In the case of the restrained eater, it is possible that they too believe in the all or nothing theory of excess which promotes the shift from a high calorie lapse to the what the hell characterized by disinhibition. The initial questions in any consultation from health professional to the patient will enable the health professional to understand the nature of the problem and to form an internal representation of the type of problem. Design The study involved a longitudinal design and data were collected at three time points. She is author of five books and over 130 journal articles. The individual therefore believed that they had had an operation and had the 12 health848.ch12 16/4/07 3:00 pm Page 285 FOCUS ON RESEARCH 12.2 285 Putting theory into practice treating chronic pain This is an interesting paper, as it illustrates how a theoretical approach can be used as a basis for clinical practice. (2006) Randomized clinical trial of cognitive behavioral stress management on human immunodeficiency virus viral load in gay men treated with highly active anti retroviral therapy, Psychosomatic Medicine, 68: 14351. Criticisms of the TPB Schwarzer (1992) has criticized the TPB for its omission of a temporal element and argues that the TPB does not describe either the order of the different beliefs or any direction of causality. . Management (2004) Pennebaker, J.W. This transition from lapse to relapse and the associated changes in mood and cognitions is illustrated in Figure 6.8. access for your students, .bs3-nav-link-ls { What does it mean to be ill? This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the literature on screening and examines the contribution of psychological, service provision and demographic factors. Is it possible to be both external and internal? Smoking in children Doll and Peto (1981) reported that people whose smoking is initiated in childhood have an increased chance of lung cancer compared with those who start smoking later on in life. The process of cessation Most research to date has conceptualized cessation as the result of a slow process of cognitive shifts. Discuss why people turn up for screening. Why is there such cultural variation in where and when people experience pain? 2 The stress buffering hypothesis suggests that social support helps individuals to cope with stress, therefore mediating the stressillness link by buffering the individual from the stressor; social support influences the individuals appraisal of the potential stressor. . This book provides a good introduction to the area of PNI and explains how factors such as stress, depression and conditioning can affect the immune system. 1992). Ebrecht, M., Hextall, J., Kirtley, L.G., Taylor, A., Dyson, M. and Weinman, J. However, since these concerns were raised, the dose of radiation used in mammography has been reduced, although some concerns still remain. The early health promotion campaigns focused mainly on the determinants of smoking in adult men, but over recent years there has been an increasing interest in smoking in children. They found that 48 per cent of the sample had sufficiently high scores on the scale to qualify as cases patients, which is over four times higher than that in women in the general population. People tend to show one form of coping or the other, although it is possible for someone to manage one type of problem by denying it and another by making specific plans. All were then given a health message about the links between excessive alcohol intake and breast cancer. 117 05 health848.ch05 118 16/4/07 3:18 pm Page 118 CHAPTER 5 SMOKING AND ALCOHOL USE focus on research 5.2 Putting theory into practice worksite smoking ban A pilot study to examine the effects of a workplace smoking ban on smoking, craving, stress and other behaviours (Gomel et al. improved self-esteem, reduced risk of CHD, etc.) The subjects are left alone for a set amount of time to rate the foods and then the amount they have eaten is weighed (the subjects do not know that this will happen). This model has been used to predict coronary heart disease in the USA (Karasek et al. However, one survey showed that about a quarter of those questioned (men and women) described themselves as lifelong abstainers (General Household Survey 1994). Halmi et al. If you wish to use the reader as a supplementary text alongside this textbook, we have provided a list of chapters of Health Psychology 4th Edition alongside the related papers from the reader. Participants were asked either simply to rate a series of causes for heart attack (the questionnaire) or to read a vignette about a man and to estimate his chances of having a heart attack. However, the one thing that we are led to believe can be changed is our body. The list could be endless. The results showed that the group in a state of high dissonance experienced less pain following the placebo than the group in low dissonance. Likewise, theories of addiction reflected these shifts. Michie, S. and Abraham, C. (2004) Health Psycho This edited collection provides a detailed acco chartered health psychologist in the UK. However, the concept of self-control transcended these themes. Failure to acknowledge personal susceptibility: although people appear to know about HIV, its causes and how it is transmitted, feelings of immunity and low susceptibility (it wont happen to me) are extremely common. The stages-of-change model is increasingly used both in research and as a basis to develop interventions that are tailored to the particular stage of the specific person concerned. 2 Protection motivation variables: (a) perceived severity, (b) perceived susceptibility, (c) response efficacy, (d) self-efficacy, (e) fear. It explores problems with these models and describes studies that address the gap between behavioural intentions and actual behaviour. If the individual can provide justification for their behaviour, for example I was paid to go to Lourdes, then they will experience low dissonance. 1994). However, implicit in the interaction between the mind and body is a definition of these two factors being separate in order to interact. 1992; Akan and Grilo 1995) and body dissatisfaction and eating concerns (Rucker and Cash 1992; Powell and Khan 1995). In industrialized countries smoking is the leading cause of loss of healthy life years. Data analysis The data were analysed using IPA (Smith and Osborn 2003). Researchers have also differentiated between stress that is harmful and damaging (distress) and stress that is positive and beneficial (eustress). Turk and Rennert (1981) encouraged patients with cancer to describe and monitor their pain, encouraged them to develop coping skills, taught them relaxation skills, encouraged them to do positive imagery and to focus on other things. Stress leads to physiological changes which can trigger or exacerbate illness. Generalization occurs when the withdrawal symptoms from a period of abstinence from an addictive behaviour act as cues for further behaviour. However, whether asking an individual about the relationship really accesses the interaction between two people is questionable. The new edition includes new data, graphs and further reading plus suggestions about where you can access the most recent publications and other data. In terms of habit, research indicates a role in explaining condom use (Trafimow 2000) and that habit reduces peoples use of information (Aarts et al. Therefore the symptoms and social messages will contribute towards the development of illness cognitions, which will be constructed according to the following dimensions: identity, cause, consequences, time line, cure/control. . http go hrw com. There is no place for interpretation or moderation. Sex differences in drinking more than the recommended intake of alcohol by sex are shown in Figure 5.3. For example, having one obese parent results in a 40 per cent chance of producing an obese child, and having two obese parents results in an 80 per cent chance. In one study, this theory was tested experimentally and the health-related behaviours of medical students were evaluated both before and during a stressful examination period. However, although many ex-smokers report that I did it on my own, it is important not to discount their exposure to the multitude of health education messages received via television, radio or leaflets. This educational perspective explains communication in terms of the transfer of knowledge from medical expert to layperson. they only felt isolation; second, the study illustrates how simply having a gay identity is not enough to prepare them for their new community and that they have to learn a gay specific knowledge and a gay language; and third, the study describes how this new culture influences their sexual behaviour. Therefore, although the results of the OXCHECK study suggested some reduction in risk factors for cardiovascular disease, the authors were fairly pessimistic in their presentation of these reductions. Research has also used the health beliefs and structured models outlined in Chapter 2 to examine the predictors of both intentions to stop smoking and successful smoking cessation. Health Psychology A Textbook Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology Second Edition. 3 Cognitive avoidance and denial, involving minimizing the seriousness of the illness. Additional cognitions that predict smoking behaviour include associating smoking with fun and pleasure, smoking as a means of calming nerves and smoking as being sociable and building confidence, all of which have been reported by young smokers (Charlton 1984; Charlton and Blair 1989; see also Chapter 11 for a discussion of smoking and stress reduction). This indicates an association between cognitive state and symptom perception. In terms of knowing their partner, 31 per cent of males and 35 per cent of females reported knowing nothing of their partners sexual history, and knowing was often explained in terms of she came from a nice family and stuff, and having seen them around. Since the beginnings of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, sex as a risk has taken on a new dimension the dimension of chronic illness and death. A focus on research section, which aims to illustrate three aspects of health psychology: (1) testing a theory, which examines how a theory can be turned into a research project with a description of the background, methods used (including details of measures), results and conclusions for each paper chosen; (2) putting theory into practice, which examines how a theory can be used to develop an intervention; and (3) the experience of . People need exposure and reinforcement to make the smoke or drink enough to develop tolerance. Support for the HAPA The individual components of the HAPA have been tested providing some support for the model. The most accessible, current, and engaging introduction to health psychology today. This chapter does not aim to cover all of them but will describe four key health issues. Sometimes these outcomes occur in opposite directions (it may make a person anxious but benet their health status). In contrast, women who chose surgery valued a quick resolution and focused on the support from hospital staff, although some commented that their emotional needs had not always been met. 1 Measuring exercise behaviour is difcult as some exercise takes the form of structured organized activity such as sport, whereas some takes the form of behaviour which is integrated in a persons daily life such as walking and stair climbing. Therefore the model adds a temporal and process factor to understanding the relationship between beliefs and behaviour and suggests that individuals initially decide whether or not to carry out a behaviour (the motivation stage), and then make plans to initiate and maintain this behaviour (the action phase). Further, this damage might be greater in those individuals with a particular genetic tendency. Why study health behaviours? Focus on research 3.1: Testing a theory illness representations and behavioural outcomes Stage 1: Interpretation Stage 2: Coping The positive interpretation of illness Using the self-regulatory model to predict outcomes To conclude Questions For discussion Assumptions in health psychology Further reading 4 Health professionalpatient communication and the role of health beliefs Chapter overview What is compliance? Organizational factors Many organizational factors may also influence the uptake of screening. Prochaska and DiClemente examined these different therapeutic approaches for common processes and suggested a new model of behaviour change based on the following stages: 1 2 3 4 5 Pre-contemplation: not intending to make any changes. 1997). 337 15 health848.ch15 338 16/4/07 3:03 pm Page 338 CHAPTER 15 OBESITY AND CORONARY HEART DISEASE Physiological theories Several physiological theories describe the possible causes of obesity. . This decrease in smoking behaviour follows a trend for an overall decline and is shown in Figure 5.1. It was found that although the variables of the PMT were predictive of behaviour and behavioural intentions in both populations, the results were improved 02 health848.ch02 16/4/07 2:42 pm Page 29 SOCIAL COGNITION MODELS with the additional variables. . In Beechers study, the soldiers benefited from their pain. For discussion Consider the last time you were ill (e.g. Stroke patients: 68 men and women were recruited within 20 days of admission for stroke. Customer Service & Tech Support contact information, Online Technical Support Center Are there placebo effects in psychological treatments? As a valued customer, buy online and receive 30% off any of our Study Skills books by entering the promo code getahead xxxi 00 health848.prelims 18/4/07 4:00 pm Page xxxii 00 health848.prelims 18/4/07 4:00 pm Page xxxiii Acknowledgements My thanks again go to my students and research assistants and to my colleagues over the years for their comments, feedback and research input. Research has also specifically examined the role of pre-operative information. Visiting Lourdes in order to improve ones health status involves a degree of investment in that behaviour in terms of time, money and so on. Similarly, in 2004 Mokdad et al. London: Routledge. Age-standardized rate per 100,000 population 20 18 Males Females 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Year Figure 5.5 Alcohol-related deaths in the UK since 1991 99 05 health848.ch05 100 16/4/07 3:18 pm Page 100 CHAPTER 5 SMOKING AND ALCOHOL USE What is an addiction? In parallel, attitudes towards human behaviour were changing and a more liberal, laissezfaire attitude became dominant. This paper reports the results from 391 women who completed questions about breast and cervical screening behaviour. Primarily, there are many other effects of placebos besides pain reduction. It is reported that relaxation and guided imagery may decrease these problems. Some were given personalized information, such as If you take this medicine, there is a substantial chance of you getting one or more of its side effects, whereas some were given non-personalized information, such as A substantial proportion of people who take this medication get one or more of its side effects. The authors concluded that these effects were probably due to the restriction of their diet. a poor working environment causes high stress). Reporting error Reporting error has also been suggested as an explanation of placebo effects. Therefore, in terms of the relationship between anxiety and chronic pain, there is a cycle of pain increase. Alcohol was regarded as a powerful and destructive substance and alcoholics were regarded as its victims. Psychological problems and obesity treatment Wadden et al. Thompson and colleagues reported that in this experimental situation the restrained eaters consumed fewer calories than the unrestrained eaters after both the low and high preloads. Therefore stress management appears to reduce angina, which in turn could reduce the occurrence of myocardial infarctions. Many models of health beliefs assume that behaviour is a consequence of a series of rational stages that can be measured. Discuss. These offer an opportunity to examine the effects of policy on behaviour change and to assess the effectiveness of public health interventions in promoting smoking cessation. It has consistently been shown that most girls and women would like to be thinner than they are and most males would like to be either the same or larger (see Figure 6.4). The outcome of such interventions has traditionally been assessed in terms of a reduction in pain intensity and pain perception. 1983). The data from 1082 men in the experimental condition (who had received the beta-blocker) and 1094 men in the placebo condition were analysed (all women and those men who had not completed the psychosocial measures were excluded from the analysis). 1989), those suffering from a chronic illness (Hays and Stewart 1990) and children (Normandeau et al. Mapes (1980) suggested that they vary in terms of their prescribing behaviour, with a variation of 1590 per cent of patients receiving drugs. The latter of these continue to lead the way in developing and implementing improved provision both within their own organizations and within the NHS including such practices as day care, the use of local anaesthetics and, more recently, the introduction of medical abortions. Over recent years, research has focused on the eating behaviour of the obese not in terms of calories consumed, or in terms of amount eaten, but more specifically in terms of the type of food eaten. Therefore, within this perspective the desired outcome of the coping process is the development of illusions, not reality orientation. Placebos may decrease anxiety by empowering the individual and encouraging them to feel that they are in control of their pain. Coping has been defined by Lazarus and colleagues as the process of managing stressors that have been appraised as taxing or exceeding a persons resources and as the efforts to manage . Newell and Simon differentiated between two types of plans: heuristics and algorithms. A further study evaluated the TPB in relation to weight loss (Schifter and Ajzen 1985). for both the experimental group and the control group). Accordingly, social cognition models attempt to place the individual within the context both of other people and the broader social world. Marteau, T.M., Senior, V., Humphries, S.E. Sutton (2002a) argues that these associations are causally ambiguous and cannot be concluded unless experimental methods are used. There was a small subgroup in Rosss study who were both overweight and depressed who tended to be the most educated. However, an alternative explanation of the relationship focuses on the subjective experience of craving for a substance. In addition, exercise may result in an improved sense of achievement and self-efficacy. For FAP, people were sceptical about the ability of a blood test to inform about a disease that occurred in the bowel. Chapter 10 examines research on stress in terms of its definition and measurement and Chapter 11 assesses the links between stress and illness via changes in both physiology and behaviour and the role of moderating variables. The results showed that focusing on risk-decreasing factors increased optimism by increasing perceptions of others risk. Tuckett et al. A role for psychological factors in stress Both Cannons and Selyes early models of stress conceptualized stress as an automatic response to an external stressor. Health beliefs predict health behaviours. These fibres constitute part of the physiological input to pain perception. For example, Are we interested in the individuals own experience of the pain? (i.e. Only experimental de be made. In 1987, Solomon et al. hunger, satiety) and obese individuals tended to be underresponsive to their internal cues and overresponsive to external cues. Interestingly, women show poorer recovery from MI than men in terms of both mood and activity limitations. Some research also suggests that fear may also be involved in exacerbating existing pain and turning acute pain into chronic pain. are becoming compelling and noted that the death rate due to colorectal cancer was ten times that due to cervical cancer, for which there is an existing screening programme. (1998) The immunological effects of thought suppression, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75: 126472. This paper provides a detailed account of the research using implementation intentions. According to the model, food intake is motivated by a physiologically determined hunger boundary and deterred by a physiologically determined satiety boundary. Biological ones may have an abortion and what foods are either good a Learned helplessness summer camp of reality can not ) achieve governments screening can. 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